Comparison of the Psychometric Properties of the Child (age 7-11) Version of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact in Two Cultures

Abstract: This report summarizes the comparison of the psychometric properties of the Child-3 version of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact in two cultures: Russian and Canadian. The Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact (STQ-77) is a 77-item questionnaire based on the paradigm of activity-specific differentiation between the temperament components. In contrast to other temperament models, including the earlier versions of the STQ, the STQ-77 is structured in line with the neurochemical model Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET). The FET summarizes the contributions of neurotransmitters, hormones and opioid systems to regulating consistent behavioral patterns (temperament traits in healthy individuals, including animals and symptoms of psychiatric disorders in psychopathology). The adult version of the STQ-77 is complemented by the four versions for children, one of which is STQ-77-Child-3 (STQ-77-C3), which is designed to screen for temperament in children 7-11 years old. Using two samples, 124 Canadian participants (M/F = 65/59) and 83 Russian participants (M/F = 39/44), this study examined the psychometric properties of English (STQ-77En-C3) and Russian (STQ-77Ru-C3) versions, including the scales reliability, sex differences in the norms and its factorial structure. The results showed high-reliability indices for the scales in both versions of the STQ-77-C3. Factor analysis using eigenvalues less than one showed that the STQ-77 has a factor structure similar to that found in the adult versions of the STQ-77. In both the English and Russian versions of the STQ-77-C3 (similarly to the adult versions), there were factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects and Emotionality. However, unlike adult versions, the “cortical” scales (Intellectual Endurance, Plasticity, and Probabilistic Processing) were entangled with Emotionality-related scales. These differences were likely related to the immaturity of the frontal cortex at the age of 7-11. Moreover, both samples had a factor of Sensation Seeking-Impulsivity and a factor of Empathy. The separation of these orientation-related factors is in line with the structure of the FET. The analysis of sex differences in STQ-77-C3 scores showed a pattern that is consistent with pediatric literature. There were significantly lower parent-estimated Empathy in Canadian boys, in comparison to girls. Russian parents of boys gave significantly higher estimations for Impulsivity in their children than Russian parents of girls. Overall, these results suggest high reliability and consistent factor structure of the STQ-77-C3 and show the importance of monitoring for cross-cultural differences in the assessment of children.

Сравнение психометрических свойств сокращенной версии опросника структуры темперамента для детей в возрасте 7-11 лет в двух культурах

Трофимова И.Н.^а*, Зверева Н.^б, Зверева М.^б, Сергиенко А.^б
aУниверситет МакМастера, факультет психиатрии и поведенческих нейронаук
^бФедеральное государственное бюджетное научное учреждение «Научный центр психического здоровья», Москва, Российская Федерация

Аннотация: В данной статье обобщено сравнение психометрических свойств краткой версии (3) опросника «Структура темперамента» для детей в двух культурах: русской и канадской. Опросник структуры темперамента (STQ-77) представляет собой опросник из 77 пунктов, основанный на парадигме дифференциации компонентов темперамента по видам деятельности. В отличие от других моделей темперамента, включая более ранние версии STQ, STQ-77 структурирован в соответствии с нейрохимической моделью “Функциональные ансамбли темперамента” (FET). FET суммирует вклад нейротрансмиттеров, гормонов и опиоидных систем в регуляцию устойчивых моделей поведения (особенности темперамента у здоровых людей, включая животных, и симптомы психических расстройств при психопатологии). Взрослая версия STQ-77 дополняется четырьмя версиями для детей, одна из которых STQ-77-Child-3 (STQ-77-C3), предназначенная для оценки темперамента детей 7-11 лет. С привлечением двух выборок исследования, 124 канадских участника (М/Ж = 65/59) и 83 русских участника (М/Ж = 39/44), в этом исследовании сопоставлялись психометрические свойства английской (STQ-77 En-C3) и русской (STQ- 77 Ru-C3) версии, включая надежность шкал, половые различия в норме и ее факторную структуру. Результаты показали высокие показатели надежности обеих версий STQ-77-C3. Факторный анализ с использованием собственных значений меньше единицы показал, что STQ-77 имеет факторную структуру, аналогичную той, что обнаружена во взрослых версиях STQ-77. И в английской, и в русской версиях STQ-77-C3 (аналогично взрослой версии) присутствовали факторы Физической Социально-вербальной модальностей и Эмоциональности. Однако, в отличие от версий для взрослых, «корковые» шкалы (интеллектуальная выносливость, пластичность и вероятностная обработка данных) были переплетены со шкалами, связанными с эмоциональностью. Эти различия, вероятно, были связаны с незрелостью лобной коры в возрасте 7–11 лет. Более того, обе выборки имели фактор поиска ощущений-импульсивности и фактор эмпатии. Разделение этих факторов, связанных с ориентацией, соответствует структуре нейрохимической модели темперамента. Анализ половых различий в показателях STQ-77-C3 показал закономерность, соответствующую данным педиатрической литературы. По оценкам родителей, у канадских мальчиков уровень эмпатии был значительно ниже, чем у девочек. Российские родители мальчиков дали значительно более высокие оценки импульсивности своих детей, чем российские родители девочек. В целом, эти результаты свидетельствуют о высокой надежности и воспроизводимости факторной структуры STQ-77-C3, а также подчеркивают важность мониторинга межкультурных различий при оценке детей.

Ключевые слова: темперамент, опросник “структура темперамента – Компактный” (STQ-77-C3), дети 7–11 лет, факторный анализ, надежность.

Introduction

Temperament traits are considerably stable as compared to other individual attributes such as personality (Rusalov, 2018; Strelau, 1998). If personality refers to individual differences influenced by sociocultural factors (including culturally developed components of identity and values), temperament relates to universal dynamical features of behaviour. By the origin of the concept of temperament refers to (neuro)chemically-based individual differences in behavioral regulation, which are present both in pre-cultural individuals (animals, infants) and adult humans (Trofimova, 2016, 2021a, 2022). Despite emerging early in life and having relative consistency in a lifetime, temperament traits express themselves differently at different ages. It is important, therefore, to have different instruments assessing children at different stages of their development. Yet, for longitudinal studies, it is also important to have different versions of the same instrument that could carry the structure of this instrument compatible across different stages of life.

We used in our studies the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire – Compact (STQ-77), which, unlike other temperament tests, was initially developed from neurophysiological studies on adults and only then was adapted to children of several age groups. The STQ-77 is a 12-component questionnaire that assesses 12 temperament (biologically-based) traits. Unlike any other temperament test, the STQ-77 is based on the neurochemical framework Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET). The FET summarizes the functionality of neurotransmitters, hormones and opioid receptor systems, grouping temperament components according to 12 universal functional aspects of behaviour (Trofimova, 2021b, 2022; Trofimova & Gaykalova, 2021; Trofimova & Robbins, 2016). The 3 x 4 grouping of the FET and STQ-77 components corresponds to Luria’s theory of the three major brain regulatory systems (orientation, integration and energetic maintenance). Moreover, the STQ-77/ FET follow the neuroscience-based activity-specific approach in psychological assessment (Rusalov, 1989, 2018; Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007). that differentiates between temperament traits related to physical, social and mental (probabilistic) aspects of behaviour. As a result, the STQ-77 is the only test that screens for temperament traits related to physical aspects of behaviour (Physical Endurance and Physical Tempo) in both adults and children. All twelve aspects of behavioral regulation highlighted in this framework appeared to be regulated by well-identified neuroanatomic and neurochemical biomarkers (Trofimova, 2021a; Trofimova & Gaykalova, 2021).

The STQ-77 is a derivative of the earlier version of the STQ, which structure was derived from electrophysiological studies of adult temperament (Rusalov, 1989, 2018; Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007). The STQ-77, therefore, inherited several scales and items from that early version and was first developed in English. Evidence for the construct, concurrent and discriminatory validity of the English, Russian, Chinese, Portuguese, and Polish versions of the STQ was demonstrated during the past 32 years through significant correlations with internationally known scales, such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Rusalov, 1989; Trofimova & Araki, 2022), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (Trofimova & Sulis, 2010, 2016a, 2018); the Five Factor Inventory of personality (Araki & Trofimova, 2021; Trofimova, 2010; Trofimova & Araki, 2023); the Pavlovian Temperamental Survey (Strelau, Angleitner, & Newberry, 1999; Trofimova, 2009; Trofimova & Araki, 2022); the I7 Impulsiveness Questionnaire (I-7) (Trofimova & Sulis, 2011); Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale (Araki & Trofimova, 2021; Trofimova, 2010; Trofimova & Araki, 2023); the Hamilton Depression Inventory (Trofimova & Sulis, 2010, 2016b, 2018); Personality Assessment Inventory (Trofimova & Christiansen, 2016); empathy and polymathy measures (Trofimova & Araki, 2023), estimated high school grades, speed of reading and writing (Trofimova, 2009; Trofimova & Sulis, 2011), time of performance on the verbal classification tasks (Trofimova & Sulis, 2011), symptoms of Generalized Anxiety (Trofimova & Sulis, 2016a), Major Depression (Trofimova & Sulis, 2016b, 2018)), psychotic symptoms (Trofimova & Christiansen, 2016; Zvereva, Zvereva, & Pyatnitskaya, 2021), EEG studies (Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007) and comorbid anxiety and depression (Trofimova & Sulis, 2018).

Translational studies of the STQ started in the late 1980s-mid-1990s when Russian STQ was adapted to English (Bishop & Hertenstein, 2004; Bishop, Jacks, & Tandy, 1993; Brebner & Stough, 1993; Digman & Shmelyov, 1996; Dumenci, 1995, 1996; Rusalov, 1989; Stough, Brebner, & Cooper, 1991; Strelau et al., 1999). Over the years, its Compact STQ-77 English version was translated to 24 languages and was psychometrically investigated in 12 languages (see (Araki & Trofimova, 2021; Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007, 2011; Trofimova & Araki, 2022, 2023).

Several versions of the STQ-77 for children were developed and used from 2004 based on the Extended (150 items) version of the STQ (Rusalov, 2004), including the Russian Pre-School STQ assessing children of 3-6 years old (Age 2) (STQ-R-PS), Early School STQ version for assessing children of 7-11 years old (Age 3) (STQ-R-ES) and Teenager STQ version for testing children of 11-16 years old (Age 4) (STQ-R-T). The Russian Pre-School STQ was validated in two studies using the protocols from the parents of 100 children aged 3-6 and 43 children in 1997-2004 (Rusalov, 2004). The Russian Early School STQ was validated in two different studies using the assessments of 200 and 112 children aged 7-11 (Rusalov, 2004).
Vorobyeva (Vorobieva, 2004) used the STQ Early School version for psychogenetic and EEG studies and also used measurements of skin galvanic response, photoplesmogram, the Motivation in Achievements Test, TAT, Raven Progressive Matrices, Cattell Intelligence Test GFT2 and Eysenck EPI. Russian Teenager STQ was tested on 510 children aged 11-16 in one study and 208 children in another study using parents’ assessment in 1999-2004 (Rusalov, 2004). In all these samples, the male-female ratio was balanced (Rusalov, 2004; Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007).

The Compact STQ-77 used seven out of twelve scales of the Extended STQ and so inherited the results of the validation studies for the scales of: Motor (physical) Endurance, Social Endurance, Intellectual Endurance, Motor (physical) Tempo, Social Tempo, Plasticity, and Neuroticism (former Social Emotionality). There are five Compact Child STQ-77 versions for assessing children: age group 0-3 (Age 1, Toddler STQ-77-C1), 4-7 (Age 2, Preschool STQ-77-C2), 7-11 (Age 3, Early School STQ-77-C3), 12-15-year-old (Age 4, Early Teenage, STQ-77-C4) and 15-19 (Age 5, Late Teenage, STQ-77-C2). Four first-age versions use adult assessors and are not self-reports. Zvereva and colleagues (Zvereva et al., 2021) investigated STQ-77 temperament profiles in two age groups of children with delusional disorders as well as in adolescents with mood disorders.

This study used two language versions of the Early School STQ-77-C3: English (STQ-77En-C3) and Russian (STQ-77Ru-C3). The main purpose of our study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the STQ-77-C3 scales: scale variation and descriptive statistics, reliability, sex differences in the norms, and the factorial structure of these versions. Our hypothesis suggested that the STQ-77Ru and STQ-77En-C3 have sufficient internal consistency and factor structures similar to the original and other language versions of the STQ-77.

Method

1.1.  Samples

The English-speaking sample consisted of 124 participants (parents) assessing their children (M/F of children = 65/59, Mean age in years = 8.78, SD = 1.25). Parents were clients of the Niagara branch of Psychological Services, 4018, St. Catherines and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Parents completed the intake forms that included the STQ-77En-C3) during registration while reaching out for psychological assessments of their children and volunteers. None of the children was diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder or disability. All the children were attending school.

The Russian sample consisted of 83 participants (parents) assessing their children (M/F of children = 39/44, Mean age in years = 8.00, SD = 1.40). Children were clients of the Mental Health Research Center under the Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Moscow, Russia and secondary school students of the Novosibirsk Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution “Secondary school N112”. Novosibirsk sample was part of the small longitudinal project called “Temperamentum”. None of the children was diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder or disability. All the children were attending school.

1.2.  Procedures

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Federal State Budget Scientific Institution, Moscow, Russia and the School Board of the Novosibirsk Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution “Secondary school N112”.

All parent participants received debriefing and signed an informed consent form permitting their intake forms to be used for the current research. All participants completed a brief biographical questionnaire as well as the STQ-77-C3.

Statistical processing included the calculations of the descriptive scale statistics (means, SD, confidence intervals) and reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alphas). We also performed factor analysis with the aim of assessing how well the measured variables represent the theoretical latent dimensions. Factor analysis of scale scores using principle components with the varimax-normalized rotation first used eigenvalues no less than one. Since the scales were expected to interact, a similar analysis was performed for the solutions with eigenvalues no less than 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6 and 0.5 to find solutions with the maximal and optimal percentage of explained total variance.

Sex differences were assessed using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test for independent samples.

1.3.  Measures

All parent participants completed the STQ-77-C3 and a demographic form in relation to their child.

Compact Structure of Temperament Questionnaire for Early School children (STQ-77-C3) (Rusalov, 2004; Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007) has 77 statements, assigned to 12 temperamental scales (6 items each) and the validity scale (5 items) listed below. Subjects respond according to a Likert scale format: “strongly disagree (1),” “disagree (2),” “agree (3),” “strongly agree (4)”. The STQ-77 organizes the 12 temperament scales into four sub-groups:

The Endurance group involves three scales referring to the ability of an individual to sustain prolonged activities: Physical Endurance, (ERM), Social Endurance (ERS) or Mental (Intellectual) Endurance (ERI).

The Speed of Integration group involves three scales referring to the speed of composition of actions: Physical Tempo (TMM), the speed of speech and reading and of other verbal activities, Social Tempo (TMS), and the Plasticity scale (PL). The plasticity scale assesses the ability to adapt quickly to changes in situations, to change the program of action, and to shift between different tasks.

The Behavioral Orientation group involves three scales referring to the sensitivity of an individual to three different types of behavioral reinforcers: basic physical sensations and pleasures, as well as their tendency for sensation-seeking and risk-taking behaviour (Sensation Seeking, SS); orientation of actions in response to another person’s emotional state (Empathy, EMP); and the ability of an individual for adequate understanding and expectations of probabilities and causal relationships between events, the efficient extraction and processing of new knowledge (Probabilistic processing, PRO).

The Emotionality group involves three scales referring to a tendency to be optimistic, confident (sometimes overly optimistic) regarding one’s own performance, and unaffected by other people’s warnings and criticism (dispositional Satisfaction, SF); the emotional reactivity, a poor ability to control immediate impulses for actions (Impulsivity, IMP), and a tendency for expectations of negative outcomes and low tolerance of uncertainty (Neuroticism, NEU). Finally, the Validity scale assesses the social desirability bias in the answers, with results within the range of 15-20 on this scale being considered invalid as this indicates a positive impression bias in the responses.

The Russian version of the STQ-77-C3 is presented in Supplementary Material.

Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for the scales of both versions of the STQ-77-C3 as well as the Cronbach alphas obtained for each scale. The range of each item in the scales was 1 to 4, and the range on the all temperament scales was 6 to 24. As seen, all alphas were in the high range for the scales in the English (0.74-0.83) and Russian (0.79-0.87) versions of the test.

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations (SD) and Cronbach’s alpha for the STQ-77En-C3 and STQ-77Ru-C3 scales.

Since the scales were expected to interact, factor analysis of scale scores using principle components with the varimax-normalized rotation was performed for the solutions with eigenvalues no less than 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6 and 0.5 to find the solutions with the maximal and optimal percentage of explained total variance. As a result, the six-factor solutions in both samples explained more variance than the four-factor solutions (see below, Tables 4 and 5). In the English version of the STQ-77-C3, lowering the minimum of the eigenvalue to 0.9 and 0.8 gave again only 4 factors, but with the minimum of the eigenvalue of 0.7, we received the solutions with five and six factors. Table 2 shows the six-factor solution for the scales of the English STQ-77-C3. To compare, the four-factor solution explained 7.51, which was 63% of total variance whereas the six four-factor solution explained 9.15, which was 76% of total variance (Table 2).

In the Russian version of the STQ-77-C3, lowering the minimum of the eigenvalues to 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, and 0.6 gave again only 4 factors, but with the minimum of the eigenvalues of 0.5, we received the solutions with six factors. There was no five-factor solution. To compare, the four-factor solution for this version explained 9.14, which was 76% of total variance whereas the six four-factor solution explained 10.27, which was 86% of total variance (Table 3). The six-factor solutions were similar to the four-factor solutions (Tables 4 and 5) in terms of having three factors similar to the adult versions of the STQ-77 (Physical aspects, Social Aspects and Emotionality).

Table 2. The results of factor analysis of principle components with varimax normalized rotation, with eigenvalue no less than 0.7, for the scales of the STQ-77En-C3, English sample: N=124. In English version of the test it resulted in five- and six-factor solutions explaining more variance than the four-factor solution. Bold font shows the scales with the highest loading on the factor

The Russian version of the STQ-77 Ru-C3 in the six-factor solution also had a Plasticity factor resembling the Probabilistic Aspects factor in the English sample. However, this factor was still less formed since the scale of Mental (Intellectual) Endurance had high negative loading with the Impulsivity-Sensation Seeking factor, making this factor look like “Impulse control and Sensation Seeking”. The scale of Probabilistic Processing had high loadings with the Emotionality factor. Similarly, to the results related to the English version, the six-factor solution for the Russian version also separated the factors related to Orientation (Sensation Seeking and Empathy), where Sensation Seeking was coupled with Impulsivity (Table 3).

Six-factor solutions in both samples not only explained more variance but they also showed the factor structure that was more similar to the adult versions of the STQ-77 and to the underlying neurochemical model FET. In the results of the use of the English version of the STQ-77En-C3, there was a well-formed factor of Probabilistic aspects that included the scales of Mental Endurance, Plasticity and Probabilistic Processing, even though the Plasticity scale had higher loadings with the Emotionality factor than this factor, and this factor also included Neuroticism with the negative loading. The six-factor solutions in both versions also separated the factors related to behavioral orientation (Sensation seeking and Empathy), where Sensation Seeking was coupled with Impulsivity.

Table 3. The results of factor analysis of principle components with varimax normalized rotation, with eigenvalue no less than 0.5, for the scales of the STQ-77Ru-C3, Russian sample: N=83. In Russian versions, it resulted in a six-factor solution (no five-factor solution was formed), explaining more variance than the four-factor solution. Bold font shows the scales with the highest loading on the factor

The results of factor analysis of principle components with the varimax-normalized rotation, with the eigenvalues no less than 1.0, 0.9, and 0.8, showed only four-factor solutions in both English and Russian versions of the STQ-77-C3. These solutions had the three factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects and Emotionality, which were similar to the adult versions (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 4. The results of factor analysis of principle components with varimax normalized rotation, with eigenvalue no less than one. In both versions it resulted in four-factor solutions. Bold font shows the scales with the highest loading on the factor. English sample: N=124

There were, however, differences between the solutions found in several adult STQ-77 versions and the STQ-77-C3 versions used in our study. Unlike in adult versions, the “cortical” scales (Intellectual Endurance, Plasticity and Probabilistic Processing) didn’t form a factor in either sample of children aged 7-11. Instead, both samples had a factor of Sensation Seeking-Impulsivity coupled with the cortical scales.

As noted, for both STQ-77-C3 versions and samples, sex differences were assessed using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test for independent samples. This analysis showed statistically significant differences for one scale in every version (Tables 6 and 7).

Table 5. The results of factor analysis of principle components with varimax normalized rotation, with eigenvalue no less than one. In both versions it resulted in four-factor solutions. Bold font shows the scales with the highest loading on the factor. Russian sample: N=83

There was significantly lower (at p < 0.05) parent-estimated Empathy for Canadian boys than for Canadian girls, but such a difference was not observed for Russian boys. At the same time, Russian parents of boys gave significantly higher (at p < 0.05) estimations for Impulsivity in their children than Russian parents of girls. Such difference was not observed in estimations of Canadian parents.

Table 6. The results of Mann-Whitney U-test assessing sex differences in the scores of the scales of the STQ-77En-C3, English sample: N=124. Males: N = 65, females: N = 59

Table 7. The results of Mann-Whitney U-test assessing sex differences in the scores of the scales of the STQ-77Ru-C3, Russian sample: N = 83. Males: N = 39, females: N = 44

Discussion

This study compared the psychometric properties of the Child-3 version of the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact in two cultures: Russian and Canadian. The Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact (STQ-77) is a 77-item questionnaire structured in line with the neurochemical model Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET). The STQ-77-C3 version of the STQ-77 is designed to screen for temperament in early school children of 7-11 years of age. Using two samples, Canadian and Russian, this study examined the psychometric properties of English (STQ-77En-C3) and Russian (STQ-77Ru-C3) versions, including the scale’s reliability, sex differences in the norms and factorial structure.

The results showed an appropriate range of variation in each item and in each summing scale. The reliability indices for the scales in both versions of the STQ-77-C3 were also high.

It is our opinion that the application of factor analysis to the scores of the scales measuring the interconnected, mutually regulating behavioral aspects has methodological limitations (Sulis, 2018; Trofimova et al., 2022; Trofimova, Robbins, Sulis, & Uher, 2018). These limitations relate to the fact that factor analysis uses matrices of linear correlations and looks for independence in the resulting factors. Meanwhile, all behavioral aspects show nonlinearity and interdependence (Sulis, 2018; Trofimova et al., 2022; Trofimova et al., 2018). However, to meet the expectations of the psychometric community, the factor analysis using the principal components method with the varimax-normalized rotation was performed for both sets of data in this study. We expected the factors not to be completely independent, so we investigated the solutions with various minimal sizes of the eigenvalues that would maximize the amount of explained variance.

The best solutions, in terms of the maximal amount of explained variance, were the six-factor solutions in both samples (Tables 2 and 3), even though the minimum eigenvalues were set to be 0.7 for the data in the Canadian sample and 0.5 for the data in the Russian sample. Six-factor solutions in both samples not only explained more variance, but they also showed the factor structure that was more similar to the adult versions of the STQ-77 (Rusalov & Trofimova, 2007) and the underlying neurochemical model FET (Trofimova, 2021a, 2022; Trofimova & Robbins, 2016). This solution for the English version of the STQ-77En-C3 had well-formed factors of Physical aspects, Social aspects, Probabilistic aspects and Emotionality, in which the factor of Probabilistic aspects included all three “probabilistic” scales: Mental/Intellectual Endurance, Plasticity and Probabilistic Processing. In this sample, the Plasticity scale had higher loadings with the Emotionality factor than this factor, and this factor also included Neuroticism with a negative loading. This indicated that the factors of Probabilistic aspects and Emotionality might not be well-formed in the early school version of the STQ-77.

Similarly, the six-factor solution for the Russian version, the four-factor solution of the STQ-77Ru-C3 had well-formed factors of Physical aspects, Social aspects and more fuzzy factors related to Probabilistic aspects and Emotionality. The results in this version extracted a Plasticity factor resembling the Probabilistic Aspects factor found in the English sample. However, the Probabilistic factor was still less formed since the scale of Mental (Intellectual) Endurance had high negative loading with the Impulsivity-Sensation Seeking factor, making this factor look like “Impulse control and Sensation Seeking. As another mix-up between “cortical” and emotionality-related scales in the Russian version of the STQ-77-C3, the scale of Probabilistic Processing had high loadings with the Emotionality factor.

In explanation of the differences in the Early School and Adult versions of the STQ-77 on the psychometric properties of the test, we can point to a more natural explanation of these differences. The immaturity of the cortex in age 7-11 is well-documented in the literature with frontal cortical areas (mostly linked to sustained attention, plasticity and probabilistic processing) thought to mature no earlier than at the age of 21-24 (Goldberg, 2009). In this context, the results of factor analysis showed the ability of the STQ-77 to reflect age-related differences in the structure of temperament. The limbic structures influence cognition in any age (Pessoa, 2010), and, with the immaturity of the cortex, emotionality-related traits can contribute much more to other regulatory aspects at the age of 7-11 in comparison to adulthood. This might explain the entanglement of Neuroticism with Probabilistic aspects factor in the data from both samples and the entanglement of Satisfaction with Plasticity in the Russian sample.

Interestingly, the six-factor solutions in both samples had separate factors related to Orientation: Sensation seeking -Impulsivity factor and the Empathy factor. This might be explained by the active orientation processes in the age 7-11 and maturing separation between the hormonal systems differentially regulating sensation seeking and empathy (Trofimova & Gaykalova, 2021). Such separation aligns with the FET structure and the current literature highlighting the neuroanatomic and neurochemical differences within hypothalamic-pituitary systems regulating physical and social aspects of behavioral orientation (see (Trofimova & Gaykalova, 2021) for review).

The results of factor analysis of principle components with the varimax-normalized rotation, with the eigenvalue no less than one, showed a four-factor solution in both English and Russian versions of the STQ-77-C3. This solution had the three factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects and Emotionality, which were similar to the adult versions (Tables 4 and 5). Four solutions explained less variance even though they emerged when the minimal eigenvalues were set to be 1.0, 0.9 and 0.8. Three out of four factors in these solutions had a structure similar to that found in the adult English, Russian, Chinese, Polish, and Portuguese versions of the STQ-77, namely the factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects and Emotionality. However unlike in adult versions, the “cortical” scales (Intellectual Endurance, Plasticity and Probabilistic Processing) didn’t form a factor of Mental/Intellectual aspects in both samples of children aged 7-11. Instead, the four-factor solutions, similar to the six-factor solutions, both samples had a factor of Sensation-seeking-Impulsivity, which was unified one of the “probabilistic” scales (with negative loading): Probabilistic Processing Mental/Intellectual Endurance (sustained attention).

There were, however, differences between the solutions found in several adult STQ-77 versions and the STQ-77-C3 versions used in our study. Unlike in adult versions, the “cortical” scales (Intellectual Endurance, Plasticity and Probabilistic Processing) didn’t form a factor in both samples of children aged 7-11 when the four-factor solution was found with the eigenvalue no less than one. Instead, both samples had a factor of Sensation Seeking-Impulsivity coupled with the cortical scales.

The six-factor solutions were similar to the four-factor solutions and in both samples. Four-factor solutions also had factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects and Emotionality, consistent with the adult versions. The four-factor solutions in our study, similarly to the six-factor solutions, also had a separate factor of Empathy as well as the entanglement of the emotionality-related scales with “cortical” (probabilistic) scales. This messed up the expected “Probabilistic factor”, which was not formed in the four-factor solutions. We can use the same arguments for this result as we did for the fuzziness of Probabilistic and Emotionality factors in the six-factor solution, pointing to the immaturity of the frontal cortex in children aged 7-11.

The analysis of sex differences in STQ-77-C3 scores showed a pattern that is consistent with pediatric literature indicating weak impulse control and higher rates of autism in boys aged 7-11 in comparison to girls (Tables 6 and 7). There were significantly lower parent-estimated Empathy in Canadian boys in comparison to girls, but such a difference did not exist in the Russian sample. However, Russian parents of boys gave higher estimations for Impulsivity in their children than Russian parents of girls. The statistical power associated with these differences was not strong, and the samples were not large, so perhaps it is premature to reason about cross-cultural differences related to these sex differences. However, we can note that there is much more value given to empathic behaviour in Canada than in Russia, where impulse control is valued much more than empathy. These cross-cultural differences should be a subject of future investigations.

The limitations of the study include the relatively small sizes of the samples and the use of the reports completed by the parents. Parents’ reports are known for their biases but are still widely used in psychology and associated sciences and practices. The benefits of the parents’ reports are that they give the first glimpse of the child’s temperament even when the parent’s impression might not be objective. Since alternative methods to assess biologically-based traits in children are not readily available, parent assessments using child versions of the tests continue to be the primary methods for these purposes. More work should be done in investigations of the psychometric properties of the tests, including the STQ-77-C, to overcome their limitations.

Conclusions

In summary, our study investigated the psychometric properties of the English and Russian Early School versions of the STQ-77 (STQ-77-C3). The results showed high reliability and consistent factor structure of the STQ-77-C3. The six-factor solution in both investigated versions showed the presence of factors similar to the adult versions, namely the factors of Physical Aspects, Social-verbal Aspects, Probabilistic (mental) Aspects and Emotionality, as well as factors of Sensation Seeking-Impulsivity and Empathy. The differences from the adult versions were found in more fuzzy structures of the factors of Probabilistic Aspects and Emotionality. These differences were attributed to the cortical immaturity in the brains of children aged 7-11.

The results also indicated cross-cultural sex differences. Canadian parents estimated their boys’ Empathy significantly lower than parents of girls, whereas Russian parents of boys gave higher estimations for Impulsivity in their children in comparison to the parents of Russian girls. This result can be explained by cross-cultural differences in parents’ expectations. There is much more value given to empathic behaviour in Canada than in Russia, where impulse control is valued much more than empathy. These differences show the importance of monitoring for cross-cultural differences in the assessment of children.

CRediT author statement: The authors have read and approved the final version and bear responsibility for all aspects of the publication.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Supplemental material

02_Trofimova, I.N._Supplementary Material