Self-Esteem as a Factor of Well-Being in Old and Advanced Old Age

Understanding the resources for successful aging is significant in the context of global population aging. This study investigates the role of self-esteem as a key psychological factor for the well-being of older adults. The research aimed to identify the levels of self-esteem components and their relationship with psychological well-being and life satisfaction in late adulthood. A sample of 217 individuals aged 60 to 86 without significant cognitive impairments completed a battery of tests, including the Dembo-Rubinstein Self-Assessment Scales, the Social Support Questionnaire SOZU-22, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, and the Scales of Psychological Well-being by C. Ryff. Results revealed that both – life satisfaction and psychological well-being remain stable, while there is a gradual enhancement in all components of self-esteem up to the age of 80.  Particular self-esteem components (character, appearance, intelligence) are closely interrelated without losing their significance even in the age group of 80-86 years. After the age of 75, health self-esteem shows the greatest variation, and the connection between self-esteem of health and other self-esteem components becomes insignificant. The study concludes that a stable and positive self-esteem serves valuable protective function in old and advanced old age, fostering psychological comfort and acting as an internal resource for adaptation, thereby supporting successful aging.

Самооценка как фактор благополучия в пожилом возрасте
Никитина Е. А.^a*, Смолянская Е.И.^а

^aИнститут психологии Российской академии наук, 129366 Москва, Россия

Аннотация: В контексте глобального старения населения изучение ресурсов, необходимых для успешного старения, имеет важное значение. В данном исследовании рассматривается роль самооценки как ключевого психологического фактора благополучия пожилых людей. Целью исследования было выявить уровни отдельных компонентов самооценки и их взаимосвязь с психологическим благополучием и удовлетворенностью жизнью среди в зрелом возрасте. Респонденты (217 человек) в возрасте от 60 до 86 лет без существенных когнитивных нарушений заполнили предложенные методики, включая Шкалы самооценки Дембо-Рубинштейн, Опросник социальной поддержки SOZU-22, Шкалу удовлетворенности жизнью и Шкалы психологического благополучия К. Рифф. Результаты показали, что удовлетворенность жизнью и психологическое благополучие остаются стабильными, в то время как все компоненты самооценки постепенно повышаются вплоть до 80-летнего возраста. Отдельные компоненты самооценки (характер, внешность, интеллект) тесно взаимосвязаны, и не теряют своей значимости даже в возрастной группе 80-86 лет. После 75 лет самооценка здоровья демонстрирует наибольший разброс значений, и связь между самооценкой здоровья и другими компонентами самооценки теряется. В исследовании делается вывод о том, что стабильная и позитивная самооценка выполняет ценную защитную функцию в пожилом возрасте, поддерживая психологическое благополучие и выступая в качестве ресурса для адаптации, тем самым способствуя успешному старению.

Ключевые слова: Самооценка, Психологическое благополучие, Успешное старение, Старость, Преклонный возраст, Пожилые люди

Информация об авторах

Никитина Елена Альфредовна, кандидат психологических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник, Институт психологии РАН, г. Москва, Российская Федерация, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8609-2281, e-mail: nikitinaea@ipran.ru

Смолянская Елена Ильинична, аспирант, Институт психологии РАН, г. Москва, Российская Федерация, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2265-8619, e-mail: alen.smol@yandex.ru

Information about the authors

Elena A. Nikitina, PhD in Psychology, Leading Researcher, Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8609-2281, e-mail: nikitinaea@ipran.ru

Elena I. Smolyanskaya, postgraduate, Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2265-8619, e-mail: alen.smol@yandex.ru

Introduction

The proportion of elderly people in the world is increasing, leading to a new demographic reality. Old age is becoming a significant and prolonged life stage, requiring the provision of a decent quality of life that preserves activity, capacity for work, a sense of fulfillment, and the achievement of positive (successful) aging. Therefore, contemporary research is focusing on studying both the resources and risks for the well-being of an elderly person.

An elderly person finds themselves in a complex situation of uncertainty, where they must adapt to changes in their social roles and find a new place in life. Research shows a significant connection between psychological well-being and attitudes toward aging in general and toward oneself in particular. A positive perception of aging is associated with higher rates of health and physical functioning, psychological health, and subjective well-being (Fernández-Jiménez et al., 2024; Velaithan et al., 2023; Warmoth et al., 2015). A meta-analysis of over 300 publications conducted by U. Orth, R. Erol, and E. Luciano (Orth, Erol, Luciano, 2018) showed that regardless of the respondents’ gender, ethnicity, or country of residence, changes in the self-esteem of adult respondents demonstrate a similar dynamic – an increase until age 60, then stability from 60 to 70 years, a gradual decline until 90, and a sharper decline after 90. This indicates the importance of actions to maintain stable self-esteem in late age, which could serve as a protective function (Park, Chung, 2025). According to L.I. Antsyferova, successful aging will be facilitated by the active efforts of the elderly person themselves; “they must become a sovereign source of their own self-evaluations, i.e., a person capable of resisting social labels and stereotypes” (Antsyferova, 2006, p. 296), which will allow them to counter stereotypes about old age and organize optimal living conditions.

Numerous studies show that components such as self-perception, autonomy, and self-sufficiency contribute significantly to the positive functioning of older adults (Golovey et al., 2014; Strizhitskaya, Petrash. 2022). Self-esteem, reflecting a person’s beliefs about themselves, influences the perception of the world and mediates forms of interaction with it – methods of information processing, emotional reactions, the formation of motives and behavior, and the evaluation of one’s successes and failures (Frankin, 2003).

Inevitable age-related changes associated with declining physical abilities, hearing, vision, cognitive abilities, and memory undermine the functional independence of older adults, reduce their ability to cope with daily difficulties, and negatively impact self-esteem (Zhang et al., 2025).

A positive self-image can slow down the processes of psychological aging and help maintain a high level of psychological comfort throughout life (Stanislavskaya, 2014). High self-esteem formed at earlier stages of ontogeny, a stable self-concept, and a positive attitude toward aging (with a low level of depression and psychosomatic symptoms) enable individuals to cope with difficulties longer and more successfully, reduce sensitivity to inevitable age-related losses, allowing for a more positive perception of the aging process (Özcan Tozoğlu, Gürbüzer, 2025). At the same time, the ability to successfully solve daily tasks helps to withstand difficulties and stressful situations, reduces the psychological burden caused by everyday problems, thereby strengthening the self-esteem and well-being of older people (Babazadeh et al., 2025).

Cultural and social factors seriously influence the formation and development of self-esteem throughout ontogeny. Men typically rate themselves higher than their female peers (Josephs et al., 1992; Pinquart, Sörensen, 2001), although a more differentiated analysis reveals that this is not evident in all aspects of self-esteem (Nikitina, 2024). Furthermore, Western cultures place more emphasis on fostering high self-esteem than East Asian and non-Western cultures do (Wodarz, Rogowska, 2024). Research shows a statistically significant link between self-esteem and physical activity in old age – regular aerobic training, yoga, as well as strength and coordination exercises improve psychological state. A sedentary lifestyle and lack of beneficial physical activity contribute to decreased self-esteem and worsened psychological health (Mijalković et al., 2025).

The aim of this study was to identify the levels of individual components of self-esteem and the specifics of their relationship with psychological well-being and other psychological characteristics in late-age respondents.

Method

2. Sample

The study involved 217 people aged 60 to 86, 142 women and 75 men without pronounced cognitive impairments (scoring at least 17 points on the SAGE method), predominantly residents of Moscow and the Moscow region, who gave informed consent and completed the provided questionnaires.

3. Methods

The respondents were offered the following methods: the Dembo-Rubinstein Self-Assessment Scales, the SOZU-22 Social Support Questionnaire, the Satisfaction with Life Scale (adapted by E.N. Osin and D.A. Leontiev), and the Scales of Psychological Well-being by C. Ryff (Shevelenkova, Fesenko, 2005) for respondents aged 60 to 75.

Results

Overall, for the sample, significant (p<0.01) positive correlations were found between life satisfaction and well-being (both in raw data and expressed in stens) and all self-esteem scales: intelligence (Spearman Rho=0.410), appearance (Rho=0.344), character (Rho=0.366), health (Rho=0.458), as well as scales of emotional and instrumental support (Rho=0.325 and 0.262, respectively). Positive correlations were also found between all self-esteem scales and emotional support (p<0.05).

Next, the sample was divided into 5 subgroups by age. Group 1 included 50 women and 30 men aged 60-64; Group 2 included 49 women and 29 men aged 65-69; Group 3 included 24 women and 6 men aged 70-74; Group 4 included 8 women and 4 men aged 75-79; and Group 5 included 10 women and 6 men aged 80-86.

Life satisfaction and psychological well-being, as well as perceptions of social support, are stable throughout the entire studied age range and are within the average range.

The mean values of self-esteem parameters and perceptions of social support by age group are presented in Fig. 1-2.

Fig. 1. Mean values of the self-esteem scales for respondents of old and advanced old age, in %.

Fig. 2. Mean values of the SOZU-22 Social Support Questionnaire scales for elderly respondents.

Despite a certain increase in all self-esteem indicators within the 60 to 79 age interval, pairwise comparison of the results of groups 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 3 and 4 using the Mann-Whitney U test did not reveal any differences in any of the studied variables. Differences are only found when comparing the results of respondents aged 60–64 with those in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th groups, demonstrating a gradual increase in self-esteem for appearance, character, and to a lesser extent, intelligence. However, after 80 years of age, a significant decrease in indicators for self-esteem of appearance and character, as well as for emotional support, is observed (p<0.05).

Next, we examined the relationship between life satisfaction and psychological well-being with the self-esteem and social support scales separately for each age group. In groups 1, 2, and 3, the relationships between psychological well-being and self-esteem (with all scales) and with social support were confirmed. However, after the age of 65, the significance of the relationships between self-perceptions and social support begins to decrease, which apparently indicates the separate contribution of these variables to well-being in late ages. In groups 4 and 5, i.e., respondents over 75 years old, life satisfaction is associated only with self-esteem of character (p<0.01), intelligence, and appearance (p<0.05).

Discussion

The obtained data confirm the significant role of self-esteem in achieving psychological well-being and experiencing life satisfaction in all studied age groups. Interestingly, the components of self-esteem we selected for analysis (character, appearance, intelligence) are closely interrelated and do not lose their significance even in the oldest age group (80-86 years). At the same time, after 75 years, the greatest dispersion of values is observed in the assessment of one’s own health – ranging from 1 to 100%, and the connection between this component of self-esteem and its other aspects is lost. Perhaps, in late ages, a person’s physical condition is more situationally dependent than all other aspects of their self-concept. This explains the fact that life satisfaction and perceptions of one’s own health do not correlate in respondents of advanced old age.

It has been shown that while life satisfaction and psychological well-being remain stable, there is a gradual increase in all components of self-esteem up to the age of 80. Our data coincide with the results of Y. Ogihara (Ogihara, 2019), who also did not observe a sharp drop in self-esteem among older respondents in a Japanese sample. According to his assumptions, this may be related to a more stable self-concept in people from non-Western cultures, who do not feel the need to demonstrate high self-esteem during their youth and adulthood.

Conclusions

Credit author statement: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Study Limitations

First of all, it is worth noting that the study involved relatively well-off respondents living in the capital, who have the desire and opportunity to meet with psychologists, including within the framework of the “Moscow Longevity” program, and who have no cognitive impairments. It is quite possible that the results of a study conducted with less advantaged groups of elderly people would have yielded a somewhat different picture.

The sample remains unbalanced in terms of gender and age – it contains more women, and respondents of advanced old age (75+) constitute only 13% of the total sample.

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